Broccoli Cultivated with Deep Sea Water Mineral Fertilizer Enhances Anti-Cancer and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of AOM/DSS-Induced Colorectal Cancer in C57BL/6N Mice.

This study aimed to determine the alleviating effect of broccoli grown with deep sea water mineral (DSWM) fertilizer extracted from deep sea water on the development of colorectal cancer in C57BL/6N mice treated with AOM/DSS. Naturaldream Fertilizer Broccoli (NFB) cultured with deep sea water minerals (DSWM) showed a higher antioxidant effect and mineral content. In addition, orally administered NFB, showed a level of recovery in the colon and spleen tissues of mice compared with those in normal mice through hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. Orally administered NFB showed the inhibition of the expression of inflammatory cytokine factors IL-1ß, IL-6, TNF, IFN-γ, and IL-12 while increasing the expression of IL-10. Furthermore, the expression of inflammatory cytokines and NF-κB in the liver tissue was inhibited, and that of inflammatory enzymes, such as COX-2 and iNOS, was reduced. In the colon tissue, the expression of p53 and p21 associated with cell cycle arrest increased, and that of Bcl-2 associated with apoptosis decreased. Additionally, the expression of Bax, Bad, Bim, Bak, caspase 9, and caspase 3 increased, indicating enhanced activation of apoptosis-related factors. These results demonstrate that oral administration of broccoli cultivated using DSWM significantly restores spleen and colon tissues and simultaneously inhibits the NF-κB pathway while significantly decreasing cytokine expression. Moreover, by inducing cell cycle arrest and activating cell apoptosis, they also suggest alleviating AOM/DSS-induced colon cancer symptoms in C57BL/6N mice.

Fertilizer management for global ammonia emission reduction.

Crop production is a large source of atmospheric ammonia (NH3), which poses risks to air quality, human health and ecosystems1-5. However, estimating global NH3 emissions from croplands is subject to uncertainties because of data limitations, thereby limiting the accurate identification of mitigation options and efficacy4,5. Here we develop a machine learning model for generating crop-specific and spatially explicit NH3 emission factors globally (5-arcmin resolution) based on a compiled dataset of field observations. We show that global NH3 emissions from rice, wheat and maize fields in 2018 were 4.3 ± 1.0 Tg N yr-1, lower than previous estimates that did not fully consider fertilizer management practices6-9. Furthermore, spatially optimizing fertilizer management, as guided by the machine learning model, has the potential to reduce the NH3 emissions by about 38% (1.6 ± 0.4 Tg N yr-1) without altering total fertilizer nitrogen inputs. Specifically, we estimate potential NH3 emissions reductions of 47% (44-56%) for rice, 27% (24-28%) for maize and 26% (20-28%) for wheat cultivation, respectively. Under future climate change scenarios, we estimate that NH3 emissions could increase by 4.0 ± 2.7% under SSP1-2.6 and 5.5 ± 5.7% under SSP5-8.5 by 2030-2060. However, targeted fertilizer management has the potential to mitigate these increases.

A quantitative approach on environment-food nexus: integrated modeling and indices for cumulative impact assessment of farm management practices.

Background: Best management practices (BMPs) are promising solutions that can partially control pollution discharged from farmlands. These strategies, like fertilizer reduction and using filter strips, mainly control nutrient (N and P) pollution loads in basins. However, they have secondary impacts on nutrition production and ecosystem. This study develops a method to evaluate the cumulative environmental impacts of BMPs. It also introduces and calculates food's environmental footprint (FEF) for accounting the total environmental damages per nutrition production. Methods: This study combines the soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) for basin simulation with the indices of ReCiPe, a life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) method. By these means, the effectiveness of BMPs on pollution loads, production yields, and water footprints (WFs) are evaluated and converted as equivalent environmental damages. This method was verified in Zrebar Lake, western Iran. Here, water consumption, as WFs, and eutrophication are the main indices that are converted into equivalent health and ecological impairments. Two methods, entropy and environmental performance index (EPI), are used for weighting normalized endpoints in last step. Results: Results showed that using 25-50% less fertilizer and water for irrigation combined with vegetated filter strips reduce N and P pollution about 34-60% and 8-21%, respectively. These can decrease ecosystem damages by 5-9% and health risks by 7-14%. Here, freshwater eutrophication is a more critical damage in ecosystem. However, using less fertilizer adversely reduces total nutrition production by 1.7-3.7%. It means that BMPs can decline total ecological damages and health risks, which threatens nutrition production. FEF presents a tool to solve this dilemma about the sustainability of BMPs. In the study area, a 4-9% decrease in FEF means that BMPs are more environmental friendly than nutrition menacing. Finally, this study concludes that SWAT-ReCiPe with FEF provides a quantitative framework for environment-food nexus assessment. However, due to the uncertainties, this method is recommended as a tool for comparing management strategies instead of reporting certain values.

Association between maternal exposure to chemical fertilizer and the risk of birth defects in a rural population in northern China: a population-based study.

BACKGROUND: Maternal exposure to pesticides during early pregnancy is associated with increased risks of birth defects, while the association between maternal exposure to chemical fertilizer during pregnancy and the risk of birth defects remains unknown. METHODS: Data were from a population-based birth defects surveillance system between 2007 and 2012 in Pingding County, Shanxi Province, northern China. A total of 14 074 births with 235 birth defects were used to estimate spatial clustering and correlations at the village level. A population-based case-control study of 157 cases with birth defects and 204 controls was performed to investigate the association between maternal chemical fertilizer exposure and the risk of birth defects by a two-level logistic model. RESULTS: The total prevalence of birth defects between 2007 and 2012 was 167.0/10 000 births. The spatial analysis indicated a remarkable high-risk area of birth defects in the southeast of Pingding County and the use of chemical fertilizer was associated with the risk of birth defects at the village level. After adjusting for confounders at the individual level, mothers who live in villages with chemical fertilizer application ≥65 tons/y had an increased risk of birth defects (adjusted odds ratio 2.06 [95% confidence interval 1.23 to 3.46]) compared with those of <65 tons/y. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that the risk of birth defects may be associated with the use of chemical fertilizer in rural northern China. The findings must be cautiously interpreted and need to be investigated on larger samples.

Interactive effects of maternal exposure to chemical fertilizer and socio-economic status on the risk of low birth weight.

BACKGROUND: Maternal exposure to chemical fertilizer and disadvantaged maternal socio-economic status (SES) have been found to associate with increased risk of low birth weight (LBW). However, whether the two factors would interact to elevate the risk of LBW remains unknown. The present study aimed to explore the interactive effects of maternal exposure to chemical fertilizer during pregnancy and low SES on the risk of term LBW (tLBW). METHODS: In this population-based case-control study, 179 tLBW cases (birthweight < 2500 g and gestational age ≥ 37 weeks) and 204 controls (birthweight ≥ 2500 g and gestational age ≥ 37 weeks) were chosen from the Perinatal Health Care Surveillance System of Pingding County, Shanxi Province, China between 2007 and 2012. Data on basic socio-demographic, dietary and lifestyle characteristics and environmental exposure were directly extracted from the system. Maternal exposure to chemical fertilizer was measured at both household level and village level. Household-level exposure was indicated by household chemical fertilizer use in farming during pregnancy and the data was collected by trained healthcare workers after the selection of cases and controls in 2013. Village-level exposure was indicated by annual amount of village chemical fertilizer consumption per acre and the data came from the Annals of National Economics Statistics of Pingding County in 2010. Interactions between maternal exposure to chemical fertilizer and SES were assessed in logistic regressions using relative excess risk due to interaction (RERI), which indicates an additive interaction if larger than 0. RESULTS: The combination of low maternal SES and high exposure to village-level chemical fertilizer consumption was associated with increased risk of tLBW (aOR = 2.62, 95%CI: 1.44 ~ 4.77); The combination of low maternal SES and exposure to household chemical fertilizer use was associated with elevated risk of tLBW (aOR = 2.18, 95%CI: 1.24 ~ 3.83). Additive interactions were detected between high exposure to village-level chemical fertilizer consumption and low maternal SES (RERI:1.79, P < 0.001) and between exposure to household chemical fertilizer use and low maternal SES (RERI:0.77, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggested negative impacts of potential agricultural pollutants on adverse pregnancy outcomes, especially in disadvantaged socio-economic populations.

[Interactive effect of chemical fertilizer exposure and drinking untreated water on the risk of birth defects].

OBJECTIVE: To explore the interactive effect of chemical fertilizer exposure and drinking untreated water during pregnancy on the risk of birth defects. METHODS: The data were collected from a population-based birth surveillance system in Pingding County, Shanxi Province, from 2007 to 2012. Totally, 157 cases of birth defects were followed up and 204 healthy newborns taken as controls. The additive model and relative excess risk of interaction (RERI) were used to evaluate the interactive effect of chemical fertilizer exposure and drinking untreated water during pregnancy on the risk of birth defects. RESULTS: After adjusted for potential confounding factors, mothers living in villages with ≥ 65 ton/year chemical fertilizer application and drinking untreated water, as from deep underground, cellars, mountain spring, rivers, lakes or ponds, showed a higher risk of birth defects than those living in villages with <65 ton/year chemical fertilizer application and drinking tap or purified water (aOR = 2.12, 95% CI: 1.11－4.07). A strengthened interaction was observed between the annual application of chemical fertilizer at the village level and drinking untreated water (RERI = 2.08, 95% CI: 0.23－3.92, P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The pollution of drinking water may be an important pathway for chemical fertilizer exposure affecting birth outcomes.

Influences of Agrochemicals on Health and Ecology in Vietnamese Mango Cultivation.

The study aims to identify risks of agrochemicals that impact farmworkers, consumers, and ecology in Vietnamese mango cultivation to enhance safety and friendly production. The study finds out the total numbers of root fertilizers (N-P-K) of the noncooperative and cooperative farmers are similar, approximately 1,400 kg/ha/year higher than those in other countries. Excessive fertilizer usage is a potential threat to soil, water, and air pollution. In addition, the findings indicate that the ecology component is undergoing the most negative impact from excessive agrochemical use in mango farming. The vast majority of agrochemicals in mango cultivation are fungicide and paclobutrazol over 90% of the total number of agrochemicals used in both noncooperative and cooperative farmer groups among the three seasons. Total field EIQ of the cooperative grower category is less than that of the noncooperative grower category. These results show that mango cultivation should consider rejecting the banned active ingredients of glyphosate, paraquat, and carbendazim as well as reducing fungicide and paclobutrazol usage and encouraging cooperative participation to safeguard the environment and human health. Moreover, science information needs to be closely linked and fed back to policy development to boost the management of the awareness of the ecological risks for farmers associated with reducing agrochemical use in mango cultivation.

Mitigation potential of global ammonia emissions and related health impacts in the trade network.

Ammonia (NH3) emissions, mainly from agricultural sources, generate substantial health damage due to the adverse effects on air quality. NH3 emission reduction strategies are still far from being effective. In particular, a growing trade network in this era of globalization offers untapped emission mitigation potential that has been overlooked. Here we show that about one-fourth of global agricultural NH3 emissions in 2012 are trade-related. Globally they induce 61 thousand PM2.5-related premature mortalities, with 25 thousand deaths associated with crop cultivation and 36 thousand deaths with livestock production. The trade-related health damage network is regionally integrated and can be characterized by three trading communities. Thus, effective cooperation within trade-dependent communities will achieve considerable NH3 emission reductions allowed by technological advancements and trade structure adjustments. Identification of regional communities from network analysis offers a new perspective on addressing NH3 emissions and is also applicable to agricultural greenhouse gas emissions mitigation.

A review of carbon farming impacts on nitrogen cycling, retention, and loss.

Soil carbon (C) sequestration in agricultural working lands via soil amendments and management practices is considered a relatively well-tested and affordable approach for removing CO2 from the atmosphere. Carbon farming provides useful benefits for soil health, biomass production, and crop resilience, but the effects of different soil C sequestration approaches on the nitrogen (N) cycle remain controversial. While some C farming practices have been shown to reduce N fertilizer use in some cases, C farming could also impose an unwanted "N penalty" through which soil C gains can only be maintained with additional N inputs, thereby increasing N losses to the environment. We systematically reviewed meta-analysis studies on the impacts of C farming on N cycling in agroecosystems and estimated the cumulative effect of several C farming practices on N cycling. We found that, on average, combined C farming practices significantly reduced nitrous oxide emissions and nitrate leaching from soils, thus inferring both N cycling and climate change benefits. In addition to more widely studied C farming practices that generate organic C, we also discuss silicate rock additions, which offer a pathway to inorganic C sequestration that does not require additional N inputs, framing important questions for future research.

Integrated farming with intercropping increases food production while reducing environmental footprint.

Food security has been a significant issue for the livelihood of smallholder family farms in highly populated regions and countries. Industrialized farming in more developed countries has increased global food supply to meet the demand, but the excessive use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides has negative environmental impacts. Finding sustainable ways to grow more food with a smaller environmental footprint is critical. We developed an integrated cropping system that incorporates four key components: 1) intensified cropping through relay planting or intercropping, 2) within-field strip rotation, 3) soil mulching with available means, such as crop straw, and 4) no-till or reduced tillage. Sixteen field experiments, conducted with a wide range of crop inputs over 12 consecutive years (2006 to 2017), showed that the integrated system with intercropping generates significant synergies-increasing annual crop yields by 15.6 to 49.9% and farm net returns by 39.2% and decreasing the environmental footprint by 17.3%-when compared with traditional monoculture cropping. We conclude that smallholder farmers can achieve the dual goals of growing more food and lowering the environmental footprint by adopting integrated farming systems.

Effect of different long-term fertilizer managements on soil nitrogen fixing bacteria community in a double-cropping rice paddy field of southern China.

Soil microorganism plays an important role in nitrogen (N) fixation process of paddy field, but the related information about how soil microorganism that drive N fixation process response to change of soil phy-chemical characteristics under the double-cropping rice (Oryza sativa L.) paddy field in southern of China is need to further study. Therefore, the impacts of 34-years different long-term fertilization system on soil N-fixing bacteria community under the double-cropping rice paddy field in southern of China were investigated by taken chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) method in this paper. The field experiment were set up four different fertilizer treatments: chemical fertilizer alone (MF), rice straw and chemical fertilizer (RF), 30% organic manure and 70% chemical fertilizer (OM), and unfertilized as a control (CK). This results showed that compared with CK treatment, the diversity index of cbbLR and nifH genes with OM and RF treatments were significantly increased (p<0.05), respectively. Meanwhile, the abundance of cbbLR gene with OM, RF and MF treatments were increased by 23.94, 12.19 and 6.70×107 copies g-1 compared to CK treatment, respectively. Compared with CK treatment, the abundance of nifH gene with OM, RF and MF treatments were increased by 23.90, 8.82 and 5.40×109 copies g-1, respectively. This results indicated that compared with CK treatment, the soil autotrophic azotobacter and nitrogenase activities with OM and RF treatments were also significantly increased (p<0.05), respectively. There were an obvious difference in features of soil N-fixing bacteria community between application of inorganic fertilizer and organic manure treatments. Therefore, this results demonstrated that abundance of soil N-fixing bacteria community in the double-cropping rice paddy field were increased by long-term applied with organic manure and crop residue managements.

Targeted Drug Delivery for Sustainable Crop Protection: Transport and Stability of Polymeric Nanocarriers in Plants.

Spraying of agrochemicals (pesticides, fertilizers) causes environmental pollution on a million-ton scale. A sustainable alternative is target-specific, on-demand drug delivery by polymeric nanocarriers. Trunk injections of aqueous nanocarrier dispersions can overcome the biological size barriers of roots and leaves and allow distributing the nanocarriers through the plant. To date, the fate of polymeric nanocarriers inside a plant is widely unknown. Here, the in planta conditions in grapevine plants are simulated and the colloidal stability of a systematic series of nanocarriers composed of polystyrene (well-defined model) and biodegradable lignin and polylactic-co-glycolic acid by a combination of different techniques is studied. Despite the adsorption of carbohydrates and other biomolecules onto the nanocarriers' surface, they remain colloidally stable after incubation in biological fluids (wood sap), suggesting a potential transport via the xylem. The transport is tracked by fluorine- and ruthenium-labeled nanocarriers inside of grapevines by 19 F-magnetic resonance imaging or induced coupled plasma - optical emission spectroscopy. Both methods show that the nanocarriers are transported inside of the plant and proved to be powerful tools to localize nanomaterials in plants. This study provides essential information to design nanocarriers for agrochemical delivery in plants to sustainable crop protection.

Nitrogen leaching and grey water footprint affected by nitrogen fertilization rate in maize production: a case study of Southwest China.

BACKGROUND: Effective nitrogen (N) management measures are required to control environmental problems caused by N fertilizer use in intensive maize production systems. Soil N losses associated with high precipitation and over-fertilization in maize production can cause substantial environmental problems, whereas there is a lack of quantitative data and effective study countermeasures. A 2-year field study was conducted in the subtropical maize production system in Southwest China to quantify N leaching under varying N application rates of 0, 90, 180, 270 and 360 kg N ha-1  yr-1 . RESULTS: The results indicated that N leaching accounted for 16-38% of N fertilizer input. For farmer practice treatment (360 kg N ha-1  yr-1 ), N leaching loss was high at 110 kg N ha-1  yr-1 and accounted for 31% of the N applied. As an indicator of the ambient water quality pollution, the grey water footprint across all treatments ranged from 376 to 1092 m3 Mg-1 , with an average of 695 m3 Mg-1 . Reducing N rate to agronomically optimized treatment (180 kg N ha-1  yr-1 ) significantly decreased N leaching by 77%, and maintained high grain yield of 8.1 Mg ha-1 . The grey water footprint was reduced by 52-63% with N rates from 270 or 360 kg N ha-1  yr-1 to 180 kg N ha-1  yr-1 . CONCLUSION: Nitrogen surplus (applied N rate minus N uptake by maize) resulted in higher soil residual nitrate concentration and consequently high N leaching. High precipitation and low soil pH were the main ecological factors leading to high N leaching. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Technical inefficiency of Dutch vegetable farms: Specific-input analyses.

Differences in technical efficiency across farms are one of the major factors explaining differences in farm survival and growth and changes in farm industry structure. This study employs Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to compute technical inefficiency scores for output, energy, materials, pesticides and fertiliser of a sample of Dutch indoor vegetable farms within the period 2006-2016. A bootstrap truncated regression model is used to determine statistical associations between producer-specific characteristics and technical inefficiency scores for the specified inputs. For the sample of indoor growers, the average technical inefficiency was about 14% for energy, 23% for materials, 24% for pesticides and 22% for fertilisers. The bootstrap truncated regression suggested that the degree of specialisation exerts adverse effects on the technical inefficiency of variable inputs. While age, short-term, long-term debt and subsidy were statistically significant, the coefficients were not economically significant. Building the capacity of farmers to reduce input inefficiency will enable farmers to be competitive and reduce the adverse effects of input overuse on the environment.

Increased nitrogen fertilization inhibits the biocontrol activity promoted by the intercropping partner plant.

The examination of the compatibility between agricultural practices and biocontrol activities is crucial for establishing an efficient, eco-friendly, and sustainable pest management program. In this study, we examined the population dynamics of two specialist aphids, the English grain aphid (Sitobion avenae) on potted wheat and the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) on potted alfalfa, as well as the biocontrol activity of a generalist predator, the harlequin ladybird beetle (Harmonia axyridis). We investigated their responses to the presence of the intercropping partner plant species (alfalfa and wheat, respectively) through plant volatiles or visual cues at three nitrogen fertilizer levels in a greenhouse. In the absence of the predator, the English grain aphid population growth rate increased significantly with increasing nitrogen levels, whereas the pea aphid population increased significantly more slowly in response to high nitrogen levels. The English grain aphid and pea aphid population dynamics were unaffected by the presence of the intercropping partner. However, the presence of the intercropping partner enhanced the control of both aphid populations by the harlequin ladybird beetle. Increasing nitrogen fertilizer levels decreased the predation rates, which were otherwise increased by the intercropping partner. The beneficial effects of the intercropping partner were eventually non-existent at the highest nitrogen level tested. These results imply that the interaction between the presence of intercropping partner and the nitrogen fertilizer application affects the biocontrol activity of the natural enemies of insect pests. Thus, the compatibility between agricultural intensification and biocontrol strategies in integrated pest management programs need to be investigated.

Decision support system for NPK fertilization: a solution method for minimizing the impact on human health, climate change, ecosystem quality and resources.

Sugarcane cultivation requires correct fertilizer rates. However, when nutrients are not available, or there is over-fertilization, the yields are significantly reduced and the environmental burden increase. In this study, it is proposed a decision support system (DSS) for the correct NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) fertilization. The DSS consists of two fuzzy models; the edaphic condition model (EDC-M) and the NPK fertilization model (NPK-M). The DSS using parameters from soil analysis and is based on the experience of two groups of experts to avoid the bias to the reality of a single group of professionals. The results of the DSS are compared with the results of soil analysis and those of the group of experts. One hundred and sixty tests were developed in the NPK-M. The N rate shows R 2=0.981 for the DSS and R 2=0.963 for soil analyzes. The P rate shows R 2=0.9702 for the DSS and R 2=0.9183 for the soil analyzes. The K rate shows R 2=0.9691 for the DSS and R 2=0.9663 for the soil analyzes. Environmental results indicate that the estimated rates with the DSS do reduce the environmental impact on the tests performed.

Would fertilization history render the soil microbial communities and their activities more resistant to rainfall fluctuations?

Water stress and nutrient supply are two of the most ubiquitous global changes that surely drive substantial variations not only in agricultural productivity but also extend to alert soil living organisms. The present study aims to understand the intrinsic changes in the composition of soil populations and their functions due to the interaction between long-term fertilization and rainfall fluctuations, seeing whether fertilization history would render the soil microbial communities and their activities more resistant to water stress or not. The experiment was established in 1988 on a typical meadow soil (Vertisols) as a rainfed maize monoculture receiving six elevated rates of NPK annually. The 30-year average annual precipitation of the growing season in this region is 345.1 mm. However, in 2010 rainfall was 106.1% greater than the average, while in 2011 it was 26.5% lower. The results show that long-term NPK fertilization has made the soil microbes more tolerant to changes in soil moisture content resulting from rainfall fluctuations. Soil microbes and their activities, however, did not follow a dose-response relationship of NPK as soil moisture content was the main driving factor. Numbers of total fungi, cellulose decomposing bacteria, and nitrifying bacteria increased as rainfall in 2010 increased. Moreover, microbial biomass carbon in 2010 was almost 2-fold higher than in 2009. Soil respiration in 2010 was 11 and 35% higher than in 2009 and 2011, respectively. Otherwise, high rainfall in 2010 significantly diminished soil NO3- content and nitrification rate. Soil enzyme activity showed a higher response to soil moisture than the rate of NPK. The highest activity of phosphatase, dehydrogenase, and saccharase was measured in the driest year (2011), while urease displayed its highest activity in 2010. High rates of NPK significantly reduced soil dehydrogenase activity. These results illustrate how important it is for fertilizer programs to be flexible to match expected climate change in order to improve productivity and reduce environmental pollution.

Long-term simulation of lead concentrations in agricultural soils in relation to human adverse health effects.

Lead (Pb) exposure of consumers and the environment has been reduced over the past decades. Despite all measures taken, immission of Pb onto agricultural soils still occurs, with fertilizer application, lead shot from hunting activities, and Pb from air deposition representing major sources. Little is known about the intermediate and long-term consequences of these emissions. To gain more insight, we established a mathematical model that considers input from fertilizer, ammunition, deposition from air, uptake of Pb by crops, and wash-out to simulate the resulting Pb concentrations in soil over extended periods. In a further step, human oral exposure by crop-based food was simulated and blood concentrations were derived to estimate the margin of exposure to Pb-induced toxic effects. Simulating current farming scenarios, a new equilibrium concentration of Pb in soil would be established after several centuries. Developmental neurotoxicity represents the most critical toxicological effect of Pb for humans. According to our model, a Pb concentration of ~ 5 mg/kg in agricultural soil leads to an intake of approximately 10 µg Pb per person per day by the consumption of agricultural products, the dose corresponding to the tolerable daily intake (TDI). Therefore, 5 mg Pb/kg represents a critical concentration in soil that should not be exceeded. Starting with a soil concentration of 0.1 mg/kg, the current control level for crop fields, our simulation predicts periods of ~ 50 and ~ 175 years for two Pb immission scenarios for mass of Pb per area and year [scenario 1: ~ 400 g Pb/(ha × a); scenario 2: ~ 175 g Pb/(ha × a)], until the critical concentration of ~ 5 mg/kg Pb in soil would be reached. The two scenarios, which differ in their Pb input via fertilizer, represent relatively high but not unrealistic Pb immissions. From these scenarios, we calculated that the annual deposition of Pb onto soil should remain below ~ 100 g/(ha × a) in order not to exceed the critical soil level of 5 mg/kg. We propose as efficient measures to reduce Pb input into agricultural soil to lower the Pb content of compost and to use alternatives to Pb ammunition for hunting.